TECHNICAL WRITING TIPS

Active and Passive Voice

“Don’t use passive voice,” is probably one of those red-ink English teacher comments you sometimes saw but that was never explained. Active voice is preferred because it is easier to read and to understand, so it is especially important in technical material. Basically, in the active voice, the subject comes first. Another way to look at it is that the subject does the acting.

ACTIVE: The contractor evaluated the data.

In passive voice, the subject is acted upon. The reason this is a problem is because it is wordy and harder to follow.

PASSIVE: The data were evaluated by the contractor.

Be Specific

Technical writers should be as clear and specific as possible, avoiding vague language. Therefore, if you are seeing words like “many, some, a few” in a document, it probably needs revising. Instead of writing “a very high concentration,” for example, give the exact measurement. Give the depth of a test pit rather than just calling it “shallow” or “deep.” Instead of merely saying something is “contaminated,” provide the reader with the amount by which the standard is exceeded and specifically name the compounds involved. Instead of saying something is satisfactory, state exactly which standards or regulations it meets.

Cliches

Avoid cliches like the plague; they are overused expressions that have lost their meaning. Even if you are blind as a bat, you can see a cliché for what it is: nothing.

Getting Started

Here are some tips that may help you get started in writing your document. An English handbook also provides many ideas for beginning the writing process, outlining your ideas, and organizing your material. So if you have “writer’s block,” it might also be useful to look through those sections in a handbook. Here are steps to take before you begin writing:

gather information and data (think about what you want to say)
identify and refine your document’s purpose (consider why you are going to say it)
identify your audience (determine who you are going to say it to)
organize your information and ideas (decide how you are going to say it)

For Step 4, it is useful to make an outline. Your outline can be changed, of course, but it will often lead you to knowing your headings and subheadings and where to put specific material in your document. A writer might find it easier to write the outline as a Table of Contents page.

The next step is actually writing the draft. You can write sections out of order, if needed. Do not worry about grammar, punctuation, and style at this point. Just get something down.

After you have your draft written, go ahead and do your revisions. If you have time to set it aside a day, go ahead and do so. As you revise, aim to clarify, strengthen, and condense your message. Also, check the overall organization. This is also the time to go back and write the introductory material, such as the Transmittal Letter and Executive Summary, if needed in this report.

As you revise, here are some questions that might assist you:

Does the reader know what the report, section, or paragraph is about? If not, make sure you have the topic sentences or main ideas listed first. Example: “This section evaluates the data collected from the three well sites.”
What does the audience most likely want to know? Check any materials you have (bid packet, report guidelines, previous reports, original proposal) to make sure you have provided the necessary information.
How well organized is the document?
Are there any gaps in logic or information?
Is there enough supporting material (i.e, figures, tables, graphs)?
Did you use transitional words and phrases (therefore, furthermore, for example, however, in fact, also, first, second, finally, consequently, in addition, on the other hand, next, in conclusion, as a result, in the same way, in other words, in contrast, most important, further, to summarize)?
How well did you say it? Do you have awkward sentences? Have you checked for the following problem areas (this is also done by the technical editor): sentence structure, sentence variety, subject-verb agreement, passive voice, wordiness, misuse of pronouns, misplaced modifiers, faulty parallelism, poor organization, and poor formatting? Use your handbook or your style guide for suggestions on improving these areas.
Did you leave anything out that is essential to fulfilling the requirements of the document?
Did you include information that is not relevant?
Did you use specific, concrete language? Can a nonexpert read your document?
Did you avoid jargon, cliches, and wordiness?
Did you use enough headings and bullet lists to add to readability?

Jargon

One of the main goals of technical writers is to make text clear and simple. One of the ways this is done is by replacing jargon with simple, clear language. Jargon is technical vocabulary, and it is often not necessary. One of the best things to happen to technical writing in the last 20 years is the elimination of jargon and the increase in readability of documents. Writing jargon or extra words (such as this example from APA: “monetarily felt scarcity” instead of “poverty”) prevents readers from understanding the text. Here is an example from another company’s style guide:

Winston Churchill, facing Hitler’s armed forces in 1940, said to Americans, “Give us the tools, and we will do the job.” He did not say, “Supply us with the necessary inputs of relevant equipment, and we will implement the program and accomplish its objectives.”

Table 1 contains examples of jargon and ways to correct them.

Table 1 Simplifying Jargon

Sentence Errors

Comma splices, fragments, and run-on sentences are the three most common sentence errors. Any English handbook contains detailed definitions of each of these, but here are examples for your reference.

Comma Splice: A comma splice has a complete sentence before the comma, it also has a complete sentence after the comma.
How to correct: Use a period or a semicolon instead of a comma, or add a coordinating conjunction after the comma (and, but, or, for, so, yet).

Fragment: An incomplete thought. Fragments are unfinished because. All sentences need, at a minimum. A subject and a verb.
How to correct: If it sounds incomplete, it is probably a fragment. Revise the sentence.

Run ons: Run-on sentences are two sentences crashed together they have no punctuation in between them.
How to correct: The easiest way to correct run-on sentences is to put a period or semicolon in between the two sentences.

Vague Terms

Try to avoid using “it” and vague pronoun references. State exactly who or what you mean.

CONFUSING: Columbia Analytical Services gave the results to Montgomery Watson. It then gave the results to the client’s representatives. They . . .
CLARIFIED: Columbia Analytical Services gave the results to Montgomery Watson. Montgomery Watson gave a copy of the results to the client, Company A. Company A then . . .

Also, note that a company is singular, so you would not use “they” when referring to a company. This is where you will sometimes use “it,” but make sure your text is clear on who or what “it” refers to.

Wordiness

Technical writing should be “tight” and clear. If you can use one word instead of three or four, do so. The main problem with wordiness is that it makes the text hard to read. Table 2 shows some shorter alternatives to wordy phrases such as using “for” instead of “for the purposes of.”

Another way to eliminate wordiness is to avoid redundant phrases. In the following examples from APA, the italicized words are redundant and should be eliminated: one and the same, in close proximity, completely unanimous, period of time, summarize briefly, the reason is because, has been previously found, small in size, a total of 68 participants, both alike, four different groups.

Table 2 Eliminating Wordiness

Words to Avoid for Liability Reasons

Try to avoid overstating or overpromising. Be careful with word selection. Make sure if you use the following words and ones similar to them that you are not promising or saying too much: all, none, always, never, any, eliminate, stop, equal, guarantee, warrant, certify, ensure, insure, best, highest, maximum, minimum.

There are other words available in this rich English language that should serve your purposes just as well, depending on the context, such as sufficient, typical, facilitate, monitor, equivalent, similar, limit, reduce, recommend, and review.

Here is an example: Instead of MW guarantees to provide the client with the best choice, write MW will advise the client on the most appropriate action.

SAMPLE COMPANY STYLE

Abbreviations and Acronyms

There is no need to use an abbreviation if a term is only used once. Just spell out the term. (Example: The Environmental Protection Agency is. . . .)
If using an abbreviation more than once, place it in parentheses after the complete term first appears. From then on, use the abbreviation only. (Example: The Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) is. . . . According to the USEPA. . . .)
Generally do not use “the” before abbreviations. Exceptions are government agencies.
Abbreviations and acronyms are generally treated as singular nouns (the USEPA is the agency overseeing the program). Make acronyms plural by adding s (no apostrophe), as in VOCs. Only use the apostrophe for possession (the FDA’s position).
TPH and BTEX are collective nouns that take singular verbs; do not add the s to them: Total petroleum hydrocarbons were detected; TPH was detected.
Do not define U.S., Latin abbreviations, compass directions, or F or C. Abbreviations do not contain periods, except U.S., in., Mr. Ms., no. p., and Latin abbreviations (i.e., et al., etc., e.g.).
The original words that the acronym represents are not necessarily capitalized. Example: method reporting limit (MRL).
Articles agree with the pronunciation of the acronym: an MSDS (em ess dee ess), a RCRA assessment (rik-rah).
Latin (i.e., e.g., etc.). You do not need to define Latin abbreviations. But do make sure you are using them correctly. i.e. means that is, e.g. means for example, and etc. means and so forth or and so on. Check Merriam-Webster’s Tenth New Collegiate Dictionary if you are not sure of the meaning of a Latin abbreviation (see the abbreviations section near the back of the dictionary).
Always use a comma after i.e. and e.g. Also, they should be used in parenthetical text only: The tanks hold two liquids (i.e., gasoline and methanol).
If etc. ends a sentence, do not add a second period. Usually you can avoid using etc. by revising the text to include a phrase such as “and others” or “and so on.” Another way is to revise the phrase that precedes a list by adding the word includes or including. Instead of writing The mammals I saw were moose, elk, rabbits, etc. write The mammals I saw included moose, elk, and rabbits.
Treat resumes, executive summaries, transmittal letters, and figures and tables as separate documents. Redefine acronyms and abbreviations in them. Provide a key in the tables and figures.

Companies and Agencies

Use the name as the company or agency does on its official documents. It may contain and, &, Inc., Co., or Company.
You can shorten Company to Co. and Incorporated to Inc.
Usually there is a comma before “Inc.,” but if the company is not using a comma in its official documents, leave it out.
A company is singular, so it takes a singular verb. Also, if you use a pronoun to reference the company, use “it” instead of “they.” Champion Word Services is skilled in providing detailed editing to corporate documents. It is also. . . . (Since the “it” is a bit awkward sounding, this is a good place to use an acronym [CWS] as long as it is defined previously, to use “The company,” to use the company’s full name again, or to combine the two sentences and eliminate the need for the subject to be repeated (Champion Word Services is skilled in providing detailed editing to corporate documents and in providing quality workshops to corporate personnel).

Dates

Do not add letters to a date: June 27, not June 27th.
Do not shorten: 1970s, not ‘70s
Use a comma with month, day, and year: August 18, 1999, was the date of the test.
Do not abbreviate months in text (okay in figures and tables): December, not Dec.
Only use an apostrophe with a date if it is possessive. Examples: The 1990s were very good years. In my experience, 1974’s best song was “Me and Mrs. Jones.”

Italics

Generally, avoid italics in formal writing, except for the following examples.
Italicize the names of vessels: the Exxon Valdez.
Do not italicize punctuation that precedes or follows italicized words or sections.
Italicize the taxomonic names of genera, species, and varieties: The mountain is covered by second-growth forests of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii).
Do not italicize punctuation before or after an italicized word, just those that are part of the italicized material.
Italicize foreign words and phrases only if they have not yet entered common usage (do not italicize in situ; this is commonly used).
In the text and in the reference list, italicize titles of major documents; do not use quotation marks around such titles: Final Report: Bethel Landfill Cleanup. Again, this is a stylistic issue, not a rule. It is subject to change. When you refer to chapters or articles within larger works (such as an article within a journal), use quotation marks around the shorter work’s title: In “The Story of the Essay,” from Jane Doe’s English Secrets, we learn that every successful essay has a thesis. Do not put quotation marks around section titles of reports, however. Example: Section 1.0 of this document contains an overview of the work performed.
Do not italicize dictionary titles.

Justification

Currently, this company's report style is full justification (i.e., right and left margins are both “justified.” Tests, however, reveal that left justification (i.e., ragged right) is more readable, especially with lengthy and technical material. Therefore, it is acceptable to use ragged right in MW documents.

Lists (Bulleted and Numbered Lists)

Bullet styles vary from company to company and from style book to style book. These are guidelines for MW documents but are always subject to change. For now, these are our preferences.
Generally, bullets are preferred to numbers for lists. Numbers can be used in sequential steps.
Perhaps most important is the introductory sentence or phrase to the list. Again, there are lots of styles and discussions on this, but for consistency, the following outlines MW’s preferred style. If you don’t have a complete sentence preceding the list, you should not use a colon. You can add the words “the following” to the clause you have and then use a colon, and this is preferred to no colon. Example: The methods used will include the following:
Note that if you use the word “include” or “including” in your introductory sentence, you have an incomplete list following. Drop the “include” if you have a complete list. The animals seen included wolves, moose, and ptarmigan. (Other animals were also seen.) The animals seen were wolves, moose, and ptarmigan. (No other animals were seen.)
It is important that each bullet item be parallel to the others. Therefore, if one is a complete sentence with a period, the others should all be complete sentences with periods.
If each bullet item is not a complete sentence, do not use periods. Also, make sure they each follow the introductory sentence (i.e., that they make sense when joined with the introductory sentence).
MW’s style is that bullet items do not use commas, semicolons, or coordinating conjunctions at the end of items.
Capitalize the first word of each item in a list if each item is a complete sentence or is lengthy. Include the period as well in these cases. Do not capitalize the first word or include periods or any other punctuation marks if the bullet items consist of one or a few words and merely complete the sentence introducing them.

Laboratory quality control (QC) samples will include

method blanks
laboratory control sample duplicates
matrix spike duplicate samples

Measurements

Use figures (i.e., don’t spell out) for numbers that refer to measurements: 8 cm wide, 9 percent, 8 years old, 5-mg dose, 4 miles, 6 minutes, 3 inches, 7 acres.
Spell out simple units in the text, such as inch, acre, liter, minute, and year. But if they are part of a complex unit, use the abbreviation (define first use just as you would with any abbreviation): ft/min, mg/L.
Abbreviated measurements are written the same whether singular or plural. For example, lb can refer to both pound and pounds.
Most measurement abbreviations do not take a period. Some do, however (in. for inch). See the list of measurement abbreviations in Section 9.0 to be sure.

Numbers

Generally, spell out numbers less than 10 (one, three), and use numerals for 10 and higher (14, 256).
Always use numerals to express measurement (2 feet, 4 mg/L, 7 gmp, 5 pore volumes), time (10 p.m.), parts of a document (Chapter 4, Phase 4, Section 2, Item 3, Table 6-1, Figure 2-3), money ($3 million), very large numbers followed by million or billion (7 million), percentages and decimal fractions (3 percent, 3.14, 1.2), and ratios (1 to 10).
When two or more numbers are listed in a group in the same sentence, and one or more is 10 or more, use numerals for all:

The laboratory evaluated 7 of the 12 samples.
The contractor drilled 12 borings to a depth of 70 feet and completed 4 of the 12 borings as vapor extraction wells.
The contractor drilled six borings to a depth of 70 feet and completed four of the six borings as vapor extraction wells.

Spell out all numbers that start a sentence: Twelve test holes were analyzed. You can also rewrite the sentence to move the number: MW analyzed 12 test holes.
When numbers appear together in the same phrase, it is often a good practice to express one as a word and one as a number: MW purchased fourteen 8-inch pipes. But not in a list: MW purchased 6-, 8-, and 12-inch pipes.
Use a comma in number larger than 999: 12,000, 9,000, 800.
Use Arabic (1, 2, 3), not Roman (I, II, III), numbers for figures, illustrations, and tables.
Change Roman numerals to Arabic in references, even when Roman numerals are used in the work itself: (USEPA Region 10, Phase 3).

Parallelism

This is an important—albeit confusing—topic for technical writers, especially since we use so many lists. Basically, the elements in your list must all have the same grammatical structure. They must each flow individually from the introductory sentence. Make sure all the elements in a bulleted list, for example, are parallel to each other. If you begin one item with a verb, for example, all items must begin with a verb. The beginning of a list is the most important part; if necessary, it is acceptable to add additional elements to one or more items (see final example, below).

Incorrect: I like to do the following: flying an airline, ride a bicycle, and shooting a gun.
Correct: I like to do the following: flying an airplane, riding a bicycle, and shooting a gun.

Incorrect: My dog is old, ugly, and he has a disease.
Correct: My dog is old, ugly, and diseased.

Incorrect: Approximately half the landfill was open to the public and 25 percent was under development.
Correct: Approximately 50 percent of the landfill was open to the public and 25 percent was under development.

Incorrect:

Drill borings
Installing wells
Collection of samples

Correct:

Drill borings
Install wells
Collect samples

Incorrect:
The objectives of this investigation were as follows:

To determine the extent of petroleum-hydrocarbon impacted soils in the areas of confirmed impact.
Determining the potential presence of petroleum-hydrocarbon impact to soil and water along the eastern edge of the pad.
Collect subsurface hydrogeologic information.
Collect such data as may be necessary, including identifying physical characteristics of the site, to support development of corrective actions and RBCLs, if warranted.

Correct:
The objectives of this investigation were as follows:

To determine the extent of petroleum-hydrocarbon impacted soils in the areas of confirmed impact.
To determine the potential presence of petroleum-hydrocarbon impact to soil and water along the eastern edge of the pad.
To collect subsurface hydrogeologic information.
To collect such data as may be necessary, including identifying physical characteristics of the site, to support development of corrective actions and RBCLs, if warranted.

References in the Text

All that is necessary in the text is the author’s last name and the year of publication (Smith, 1989). The complete information is found in the reference section. However, if you choose to give the author’s full name first use or to list the title, that is acceptable.
Use a semicolon to separate two or more references in the text (MW, 1993; USEPA, 1999).
If the same author has more than one publication from the same year listed in the references section, use “a,” “b,” etc. (MW, 1999a).
Note that commas follow the last name in certain companies' style (Jones, 2000).

Spacing

Nowadays, many companies' style is to put one spaces after a period, but two is still acceptable. Consistency is the most important element.
There should only be one space after a comma, semicolon, or colon.
The spacing of ellipses points is (space) dot (space) dot (space) dot (space).
The spacing of ellipses points with an end period is (no space) dot (space) dot (space) dot (space).

Spelling

Use Merriam-Webster’s Tenth New Collegiate Dictionary as a standard spelling reference. If there is a choice of two spellings, use the first one (for example, canceled rather than cancelled).
A list of commonly misspelled words is included in the Appendices.
Watch for the following plurals, and remember that plural nouns take plural verbs. Singular: datum, matrix, phenomenon, schema. Plural: data, matrices, phenomena, schemas. The data show, the datum is. . . .

Temperatures

Use the numeral, the degree symbol, and either “F” or “C” for temperatures. Example: The temperature was 14 OF inside the building.
You do not need to define C or F in the text.

Tense

In general, technical writers use present tense unless referring to past events. In those cases, use present tense. Proposals will probably also use future tense (MW will evaluate the data). Refer to other sources in past tense (Smith said that . . .). Discuss past results of tests in past tense (One water sample was analyzed for VOCs). Discuss final results and conclusions in present tense (the results indicate). Following are examples of correct tense usage:

John Smith said, “I don’t think so.”
The landfill was evaluated by Jane Doe, who said at the time, “There are clear violations here.”
Janet Smith, in The Making of a Great Disposal Area, wrote, “Efficiency is the most important thing.”
If the participant is finished answering the questions, the data are complete.
Since that time, investigators from several studies have used this method.
The CERCLA investigation includes the following. . . .
Successfully completing site investigation or RI/FS projects has been the thrust of MW’s business in the 1990s.
The group was formed to provide a core of specialists to the FAA. . . .
MW’s field staff members are trained to. . . .
Examples of site investigations MW has performed in Alaska include. . . .
This report includes seven sections and two appendices.
Section 1 contains the report introduction. . . .
MW is recognized as a leading groundwater consulting firm.

Time

Use a.m. and p.m. (note lowercase and periods) when included with the time: 10 a.m.
Do not define a.m. and p.m.
Use numerals when referring to a specific time, even if the number is less than 10. Example: MW ran the test at 3 p.m. and again at 9 p.m.
Do not put two periods next to each other, even if a.m. or p.m. end the sentence. Example: MW ran a final test at 1 a.m.
Do not put o’clock or :00 after the time.
If you are referring to a nonspecific time, do not use a.m. or p.m. Example: The company representatives arrived in the afternoon.

Titles and Names of People

Capitalize titles only when they directly precede a person’s name or are part of an address: The source of the information was Project Manager Jane Szmanski. The project manager is Jane Szmanski. Jane Szmanski, project manager, is. . . .
Do not use a hyphen in vice president.
In the text, give the person’s full name the first mention. From then on, use Mr. or Ms. before the last name. If you are not sure of the person’s gender, continue using the full name. John Smith, Mr. Smith; Sally Jones, Ms. Jones; Pat Johnson, Pat Johnson.

Unbiased language

By now we all know we should write language that is inoffensive, but sometimes it is difficult to know what to replace words with. And sometimes the correction may seem wordy or awkward. Often the simplest way to avoid using he/she or he and she is to make the subject plural. For example, replace “An English teacher has little time to read anything except his or her students’ papers” with “English teachers have little time to read anything except student papers.” Modern English handbooks contain many suggestions for revising to eliminate biased language. Table 5-1 contains examples from the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association.

Table 5-1 Replacing Biased Language With Unbiased Language

Replace: The client is the best judge of his counseling.
With: Clients are the best judges of the counseling they receive. The client is the best judge of the value of counseling.

Replace: man, mankind
With: people, humanity, human beings, humankind, human species

Replace: man a project
With: staff a project, hire personnel, employ staff

Replace: manpower
With: workforce, personnel, workers, human resources

Replace: woman doctor, lady lawyer, male nurse, woman driver
With: doctor or physician, lawyer, nurse, driver

Replace: chairman
With: chair, chairperson

Replace: foreman
With: supervisor or superintendent

Replace: Eskimos
With: Inuit, Aleuts (be specific)

Replace: disabled person, mentally ill person
With: person with a disability, person with mental illness

Replace: stroke victim, suffering from multiple sclerosis, confined to a wheelchair
With: individual who had a stroke, people who have multiple sclerosis, uses a wheelchair

Punctuation

Apostrophes

Apostrophes are not used for plural forms of years and acronyms: 1990s, USTs.
Apostrophes are used to show possession. The apostrophe precedes the “s” when the noun is singular; it follows the noun when the noun is plural. There is no need for a second “s” after the apostrophe. Examples: the client’s bill, the USEPA’s decision, Robert Edwards’ letter.
Its and it’s are often confused; its is the possessive form, and it’s is a contraction for it is. Examples: The agency believed its decision was correct. It’s not important to me. (Do not use it’s in technical writing; see next bullet item.)
Do not use contractions: it’s, can’t, don’t, won’t, wouldn’t, etc.

Capitalization

Generally, we tend to use capitals unnecessarily. If you are not sure, you probably do not need to capitalize the word. To be sure, you can use Merriam-Webster’s Tenth New Collegiate Dictionary; if it is capitalized there, go ahead and capitalize it. Also, follow the guidelines in this section.
Acronyms and abbreviations are usually in all capital letters, although the words they are based on are often not capitalized. To be sure, check the abbreviations and acronyms list in Section 9.0 of this style guide. Example: inside diameter variation (IDV).
Capitalize titles only when they directly precede a person’s name or are part of an address: The source of the information was Project Manager Jane Szmanski. The project manager is Jane Szmanski. Jane Szmanski, project manager, is. . . .
Generally, capitalize counties, states, municipalities, cities, and boroughs when they are part of a name. They are usually lowercased when they precede a name: Kansas City, the Municipality of Anchorage, the state of Alaska, the city of Palmer, Washington State, the Pacific Northwest (the proper name of a region), northern Washington (a general direction).
If you are referring to a specific document or table or entity or organization, capitalize it. If not, lowercase: draft reports, Draft Report 1 for Bethel Landfill, Figure 1-5; the figure; the Environmental Services Agency; the agency; the Federal Bureau of Standards; federal, state, municipal, and city agencies; the federal Department of Transportation; the federal government; Congress and the Senate; the state senate and the state legislature; the department; the Department of Public Works.
Do not capitalize “the” before a company or institution name: the University of Alaska Anchorage.
Capitalize specific geographic names but not general terms: John, Paul, and Mary creeks, Yukon River, the lakes, The Great Lakes, Lake Ontario, lakes Stephan and Willamette.
Capitalize the first word in columns and bullet lists if each item is a complete sentence or is particularly lengthy. For simple words or short phrases that finish the sentence preceding the bullet list, lowercase the individual bullet items, and do not use end punctuation.

EXAMPLE: The ground is

hard
cold
dark

Colons

Use only one space after a colon (and after a semicolon, for that matter). The contractor discovered three flaws: first, a loose bolt; second, a missing nut; and third, a broken screw.
Colons in text are used after complete sentences (i.e., you should be able to replace the colon with a period). The same rule should apply to colons before bullet lists. Examples: We have six requests: the first . . . , the second . . . , etc. The ground is hard, cold, and dark.
Do not use a colon after includes or including unless the words “the following” appear after. Example: The punctuation list includes commas, semicolons, and periods. The list includes the following: cheese, bread, and water. This rule also applies when the list items are bulleted.
Colons are often used to precede lists. They are also used to precede clauses or phrases that clarify or illustrate. Although you need a complete sentence before a colon, you do not need one after a colon. However, it is not wrong to have a complete sentence after a colon. Examples: I have six pets: two dogs, two cats, and two horses. The monitoring well data were incomplete: additional testing was required. (Note: The writer could have used a semicolon, a period, or a comma with a contraction [and] instead of a colon in the last sentence.)
Use a colon after a salutation in a letter instead of a comma (Dear Mr. Jones:).
A colon can be used after one word, as we have been using throughout this document with the word “Example.” Example: This is such a case. For example: Here is another one.
When the expressions namely, for instance, for example, or that is are used in a sentence to introduce a list, a comma is usually used instead of a colon. Example: Birch’s study included the three most critical areas, namely, McBurney Point, Rockland, and Effingham.

Commas

Comma rules can be confusing, so we have provided subheadings for each use to help you find the appropriate rule quickly.

Using Commas in a Series

Always use a comma before and or or in a series of three or more items. This is a style requirement, not a rule. You might notice that most newspapers use Associated Press (AP) style, which does not use the last comma in a series. Most magazines use Chicago style, which does require it. It is standard in formal writing to use the comma.

Mammals in Area A include caribou, fox, and lemmings; mammals in Area B include polar bear, walrus, and several species of whales and seals.
It was a fast, simple, and inexpensive process.

When adjectives modifying the same noun can be reversed and make sense, or when they can be separated by either and or or, they should be separated by commas:

The drawing was of a modern, sleek, swept-wing airplane.

But when an adjective modifies a phrase, no comma is needed, as in the following example, where damaged modifies radar beacon system.

The company investigated the damaged radar beacon system.

If there are only two items in a series, no comma is necessary.

The drawing was of a modern sleek airplane.

Using Commas to Separate Complete Sentences

If you have two independent clauses (i.e., complete sentences that could stand on their own) separated by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, for, or, so, yet), put a comma before the coordinating conjunction. If the second clause is not an independent clause, do not use the comma before the coordinating conjunction.

The pack ice breaks off from shore ice in June, and the shore is free of ice from late July until mid-August.
The Gubik formation is mainly of marine origin and consists of lenses of gravel, sand, silt, and clay.

Using Commas to Set off Phrases (Which, That, Who)

Usually when you use the relative pronoun “which,” you have a phrase that needs to be set off from the rest of the sentence with two commas. Usually when “that” is used, there are no commas. Whether or not to use commas before and after a clause beginning with “who” depends on the meaning of the sentence. If the information following the word “who” is essential to the meaning of the sentence, do not use commas; if it can be eliminated without changing the meaning of the sentence, do use commas.

MW’s new style guide, which will be in use by December 1, ensures consistency in all documents.
The style guide that MW is presently using is outdated.
The editor, who studied at the University of Washington, is based in the Fresno office.
The editor who is the most skilled in that area is in the Anchorage office.

Using Commas with Names, Titles, and Addresses

Commas are used to separate distinct items in the text. Therefore, if you write an address on one line, separate the elements in this way: Chris Polsky, 4117 Ravensdale Road, Seattle, Washington 97506. Note that the state is spelled out in the text, but in letters and addresses, use the postal code abbreviation (listed in Section 8.0, Abbreviations and Acronyms):

Chris Polsky
4117 Ravensdale Road
Seattle, WA 97506
(206) 777-7677

Dear Chris Polsky:

Note that in the salutation, above, a colon is used instead of a comma in formal writing. Also, I addressed “Chris Polsky” instead of “Mr.” or “Ms.” Polsky because I am not sure whether Chris is a man or a woman, based on the name.

Here are some additional uses of commas with names, titles, and addresses:

Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Sally Jo Rogers, Ph.D.
John Smith, P.E.
LMB, Inc.

Using Commas in Numbers

Use a comma in numbers larger than 999: 131,000, 9,000, 800.

Using Commas After Introductory Phrases

In technical writing, always use a comma after an introductory phrase, in order to avoid confusion. For example, notice how the comma clarifies this confusing sentence: To be successful managers with MBAs must continue to learn. REVISED: To be successful, managers with MBAs must continue to learn.

Using Commas with Quotation Marks

Commas and periods always go inside the closing quotation marks; semicolons and colons always go outside closing quotation marks.

Smith said, “I didn’t do it,” after he saw me.
I said, “Yes, you did.”
I don’t know why he said he “didn’t”; it was clear that he did.

Using Commas in Dates

August 27, 1999, was a very good year.
MW conducted the site assessment in June 1998.

Dashes

Dashes are usually used to emphasize the text in between them—to tell the reader this is important and look here—so they should be used sparingly.
Dashes can also be used to define words. Anorexia nervosa—an eating disorder characterized by an aversion to eating and an obsession with losing weight—is common among young female gymnasts and ballet dancers.
Type two hyphens with no spaces around them, and your word processing program should automatically replace them with a dash.
MW’s style is no spaces around dashes.

Ellipses

Ellipsis points (plural: ellipses) are a set of three or four spaced dots (periods on the keyboard) showing missing text from quotations. Usually you can quote without having to resort to using them (as in the first example below), but here are some ways they are used.

Example without ellipsis: Peter Singer said that stones “do not have interests” because they can’t suffer, while a mouse does have “an interest in not being kicked down the road, because it will suffer if it is” (1975).
Quotation with ellipsis: Yi-Fu Taun, author of Dominance and Affection: The Making of Pets, said that the breeding process is used to make animals more useful or desirable for humans: “With the horse . . . humans have tried to make the animal both larger and smaller” (1984).

Use a fourth “dot”—a sentence-ending period—along with the ellipsis points when an ellipsis comes at the end of your sentence or when the material you have deleted contains at least one period: Summer also said that people have described personal space as “a small shell, a soap bubble, an aura. . . .” In Animal Liberation, Peter Singer wrote, “Nearly all the external signs which lead us to infer pain in other humans can be seen in other species. . . . Behavioral signs—writhing, facial contortions, moaning, yelping or other forms of calling, attempts to avoid the source of pain, appearance of fear at the prospect of its repetition, and so on—are present” (1975).

Note spacing requirements: with three “dots,” space before and after each one; with four dots, do not space before the first one (or after the last one if a quotation mark immediately follows it).

The ellipses points should not be separated at the end of a line and into the following line. This can be a problem in right-justified text. You may have to revise your sentence to fix it.

Exclamation Points

Avoid! Avoid! Avoid! They do not belong in formal writing! In fact, most good writers don’t use them at all, except perhaps in a quotation! (Jane screamed, “Eeek!”) And especially never use more than one!! That would be most inappropriate!!!!!!!

Hyphenation

Hyphens are used unnecessarily after prefixes. Check the lists in Merriam-Webster’s Tenth New Collegiate Dictionary if in doubt. Here are some examples of words that do not take hyphens after the prefixes: preexisting, semivolatile, nonprofit, nonhazardous, nonnegotiable. See Table 6-1 for a list of prefixes that do not usually find a hyphen.

Table 6-1 Prefixes Not Requiring Hyphens

Exceptions to the above include the following: if the prefix stands alone (pre- and postclosure elements), if the root word is capitalized (mid-August, non-American), if the root is a number (pre-1900), if the resulting word can have two meanings (retreat and re-treat or un-ionized and unionized), or if the second element consists of more than one word (non-English-speaking, non-achievement-oriented students).
Generally, hyphenate words with the prefixes ex, all, and self and the suffix elect: all-encompassing, self-employed, president-elect.
Hyphenate a numeral and a unit of measure used as an adjective: a 1,000-gal. tank, 3-, 4-, and 6-inch-diameter pipes.
Do not use a hyphen after adverbs ending in –ly: previously installed wells.
Do not hyphenate Latin terms: in situ (per Webster’s; you will see this term handled differently by different companies and agencies however, so if a client prefers another way—hyphenated or italicized or both—go ahead and use that style for that client.
Hyphenate two words of equal value used as modifiers: gray-brown soil.
Hyphenate compound modifiers when one word modifies or defines another but does not separately define the noun being referred to: dark-green building (but no hyphen in large green building, since large does not modify green).
Before a noun, hyphenate a compound consisting of a noun and a participle: decision-making skills, broad-based experience. But do not hyphenate if the expression follows the noun: Her experience is broad based. The well is 73 feet deep.
Hyphenate a phrase used as an adjective before a noun (up-to-date account) but not if it follows the noun (the account was up to date).
Hyphenate compounds containing numbers that precede the noun: 23-year-old woman, twentieth-century innovation, one-year program, 7-foot depth, 7-foot-wide opening. But there is no hyphen in the following: in three years, 35 gallons of fuel, the woman was 23 years old.
Hyphenate fractions that are spelled out: one-half, two-thirds.
Hyphenate when referring to specific figures and tables: Figure 4-1, Table 3-7.
Although most of the time, numerals 10 and over are not spelled out, if you must begin a sentence with a compound number, use a hyphen: forty-six, one hundred sixty-three.

Parentheses and Brackets

Generally, try not to overuse parentheses. Some editors believe that if it is not important enough to include as part of the text, then delete it. If it is important, set it off with commas or dashes instead. But, of course, sometimes it is necessary or useful to include parenthetical expressions. So here are some tips to guide you.

Periods go inside parentheses when a complete sentence is contained within the parentheses. (We have tentatively scheduled this meeting for June 16, 2001.) Otherwise, put the period outside the parentheses: Previous studies found the landfill area safe (Compton, 1989).
No other punctuation mark should directly precede the first parenthesis mark. The findings were explained by Smith (1989), and they were confirmed by Jones (1993).
Within a parenthetic phrase, if you have another parenthetical phase, use brackets: Buck (in The Call of the Wild [1903] by Jack London) was one of the most developed dog characters in literature.
However, for code regulations that already contain parentheses, use brackets on the outside where you would normally use parentheses: [24 CFR 1600(4)(5)].

Quotation Marks

Quotation marks are used only around direct quotes (i.e, words taken from a source exactly as they were written). If you are changing or condensing the information from another source, still give credit, but do not use quotation marks. The latter is an indirect quote.

DIRECT QUOTE, COMPLETE SENTENCE: John Smith said, “This is wrong.”
DIRECT QUOTE, WORD OR PHRASE ONLY: Darrell Cohen said he is “positive” the actions were appropriate.
DIRECT QUOTE, WORD OR PHRASES WITH MATERIAL DELETED: According to Daniel Danielson, the site was “always empty . . . and left alone.”
DIRECT QUOTE, COMPLETE EXCEPT MATERIAL DELETED FROM END OF SENTENCE: Patricia Meyers said, “I don’t think I can agree with that assessment. . . .”
DIRECT QUOTE, MATERIAL MISSING FROM BEGINNING OF QUOTED SENTENCE: Hillary Capra said that the area “is in need of a bulldozer and explosives.” (Note: There are no ellipses marks used at the beginning of a partial quotation; the word “that” preceding the quote as well as the lower case “is” tell the reader that this is not a complete quotation.)
INDIRECT QUOTE: John Smith said that he disagrees with Mark Benson on the results.

Periods and commas always go inside quotation marks: John Smith said, “I don’t think so,” and Jane Doe said, “I agree.”
Colons and semicolons always go outside quotation marks: John Smith said he is firmly “committed”; his partner is undecided.
Single quotation marks are used only within double quotation marks: John Smith said, “James told me, ‘I am sure,’ before he left.”

When quotations are longer than 4 lines or 40 words, remove the quotation marks, introduce the quotation, and set the direct quotation off with two indents, as in the following example. In Handbook of Technical Writing, Alread, Brusaw, and Oliu (2000) explained how to set off quotations:

Material that is four lines or longer (MLA) or at least 40 words (APA) is usually inset; that is, it is set off from the body of the text by being indented from the left margin ten spaces (MLA) or five to seven spaces (APA). The quoted passage is spaced the same as the surrounding text and is not enclosed in quotation marks. . . . If you are not following a specific style manual, you may block indent ten spaces from both the right and left margins for reports and other documents.

Semicolons

Semicolons are used in two ways:

The first and the most common is between two independent clauses not joined by a conjunction (and, or, for, so, but, yet): I am right; you are wrong. Often, these sentences contain a transition word or phrase such as however, furthermore, for example, consequently, or moreover. The semicolon precedes the transitional word or phrase as long as there is a complete sentence both before and after it: I believe I am right; however, I am open to suggestions. I do not, however, agree. (Note that there is a comma after the transitional word when a semicolon precedes it.)
The second use of the semicolon is to clarify a list that contains commas. The semicolon separates elements that go together. Example: I have lived in Anchorage, Alaska; Eugene, Oregon; New York, New York; and Seattle, Washington.

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